Agra in the Mutiny

Agra in the Mutiny

Agra did not take any prominent part in the events of the Mutiny. Amob plundered the city, burnt the public offices, and killed a numberof Europeans; but the rioters left soon to join their comrades atDelhi. There was a small engagement outside the city. The Britishtroops and the whole of the European population were afterwards shutup in the Fort until the capture of Delhi. The Lieutenant-Governor,Mr. John Russell Colvin, died there, and was buried in front ofthe Diwan-i-am.

The Fort

The present Fort was commenced by Akbar in 1566, on the siteof an older one constructed by Salim Shah Sur, the son of ShereShah. Its vast walls (seventy feet in height, and a mile and a halfin circuit), its turrets, and noble gateways present from the outsidea most imposing appearance. It contains within its walls that mostexquisite of mosques, the Muti Masjid, and the palaces of Akbar andShah Jahan. The principal or north entrance is the Delhi Gate, nearlyopposite to the railway station and the Jami Masjid. Formerly therewas a walled enclosure in front of this gate, called the Tripulia,or Three Gates, which was used as a market. This was cleared away bythe military authorities in 1875. Crossing the drawbridge over themoat which surrounds the Fort, the visitor passes the outer gate,and by a paved incline reaches the Hathi Pol, or Elephant Gate(Plate III.), so called from the two stone elephants, with riders,which formerly stood outside the gate, on the highest of the platformson either side of it. The statues and elephants were thrown down byorder of Aurangzib. There are four hollow places in each platform,where the legs of the elephants were morticed into it.

The gate is a fine example of the early Mogul style; it contains the_Naubat khana_, or music gallery, where the royal kettledrums announcedthe Emperor's arrival or departure, and all state functions. It wasalso a guard-house, and probably the quarters of a high militaryofficer, but it is certainly not, as the guides have it, the "DarshanDarwaza," or "Gate of Sights," described by William Finch, wherethe Emperor Jahangir showed himself at sunrise to his nobles and tothe multitude assembled in the plain below. The Darshan Darwaza wasundoubtedly near the old disused water-gate, which was joined to theroyal apartments of the palace by a private passage, and answers toFinch's description of "leading into a fair court extending alongthe river." The Elephant Gate is at a considerable distance from thepalace, and was never connected with it, except by the public road.

It is worth while to climb the top of the gate by the staircase onthe right, inside the Fort. There is a fine view of the Fort, andbeyond the walls the ever-beautiful white domes of the Taj appear inthe distance. The Itmad-ud-daulah is visible on the left. Towardsthe town you look down into the quadrangle of the Jami Masjid. Thepavilions on the summit of the great octagonal towers flanking thegate are finely carved, and bear traces of painting and enamelledtile-work. Descending the staircase to the floors beneath, one canwander through the curious small chambers and look out from thebalconies on the front of the gate.

The Muti Masjid

The road to the left after passing the Elephant Gate leads up to theentrance of the Muti Masjid, or "Pearl Mosque," placed on the highestpoint of the Fort enclosure. [6] You pass on the left a buildingknown as Dansa Jat's house, said to have been occupied by the Rajahsof Bharatpur when the Jats held the Fort. It has been made hideousby modern additions which have converted it into officers' quarters.

The entrance to the Muti Masjid is very plain and unpretending, sothat one is hardly prepared for the beauty, purity, and the unaffectedexpression of an exalted religious feeling which characterize theinterior. It is rare to find an Indian building in which the effectis produced with hardly any ornament, but solely by the perfectionof proportions, beauty of material, and harmony of constructivedesign. The courtyard, in front of the mosque, with its arcadesand gateways, is a noble setting to the Pearl, as the mosque isappropriately called. There is a subtle rhythm in the placing of thethree domes over the seven arches of the mosque, which saves the wholedesign from monotony, while the marvellous grace of the contours,which is so characteristic of the finest of Shah Jahan's buildings,makes each dome grow up from the roof like a flower-bud on the point ofunfolding. The octagonal pavilions at the four corners of the mosque,and the dainty little kiosques placed as decoration over the archesand over the gateways of the courtyard, echo the harmonies of thelarger constructive details, and give completeness to the composition.

The interior of the mosque owes its dignity to the same greatness ofstyle and perfection of the proportions. The three aisles are formedby massive piers of single blocks of marble. With all its simplicity,there is consummate art both in the placing of the ornament and inthe beautiful springing of the arches from the supporting piers. Thefine workmanship is worthy of the art.

On either side of the mosque there is a small chamber for the ladiesof the zanana, with a window filled with a carved marble _grille_looking on to the interior. They could thus attend to the services ofthe mosque without being seen. The staircases on the right and leftof the courtyard give private access to the apartments of the palace.

The Persian inscription inlaid in black marble under the wide,projecting cornice of the mosque is a poetic tribute to the beauty ofthe building and a panegyric of its founder. From it we learn thatit was built by Shah Jahan, it took seven years to build, and costthree lakhs of rupees.

The dimensions of the courtyard, given by Fergusson, are 154 feetby 158 feet; and of the Mosque: length, 159 feet; depth, 56 feet,internally.

The Dersane Darwaza

Nearly opposite to the Muti Masjid, you pass on the left aninclined passage which leads to an old gateway, a part of Akbar'sbuildings. Very little remains of the original buildings whichconnected it with the palace in the time of Jahangir, but there cannotbe much doubt that this was the locality described by William Finchas the "Dersane Darwaza, leading into a fair court, extending alongthe river, in which the King looks forth every morning at sun-rising,which he salutes, and then his nobles resort to their _Tesillam_(obeisance). Right under the place where he looks out, is a kindof scaffold, whereon his nobles stand, but the _Addis_ with othersawait below in the court. Here also every noone he looketh forthto behold _Tamashah_, or fighting of Elephants, Lyons, Buffles,killing of Deare with Leopards, which is a custom on every day ofthe weeke, Sunday excepted, on which is no fighting; but Tuesday,on the contrary, is a day of blood, both of fighting beasts, andjusticed men, the King judging and seeing executions."

The Diwan-i-am

The road now turns towards the right, through the Mina Bazar, theold market-place, where merchants displayed jewellery, brocades,and similar stuffs for the nobles and others attending the court. Agateway leads into the great courtyard of the Diwan-i-am, or Hall ofPublic Audience, which, with its surrounding arcades, was for a longtime used as an armoury for the British garrison. The hall itself wasrestored in 1876 by Sir John Strachey, then Lieutenant-Governor ofthe North-West Provinces. The courtyard has recently been put back,as far as possible, into its original condition by Lord Curzon'sorders. A further great improvement has been made by the removal ofthe hideous modern additions which entirely concealed all the arcades.

The present hall, which is an open pavilion formed by a triple rowof colonnades, was commenced by Shah Jahan, but, if we may believetradition, was not completed until the 27th year of the reign ofAurangzib. The arcades surrounding the quadrangle are probably ofAkbar's time. The interior dimensions of the hall are 192 feet by 64feet. It is constructed of red sandstone, plastered over with a finewhite polished stucco, which served both as a protection to the stoneand as a ground for coloured decoration and gilding. This plaster-workwas carried to the perfection of a fine art by the old Mogul builders,but the restoration of it in 1876 was very indifferently carried out.

The throne of the Emperor was in an alcove of inlaid marble at theback of the hall, and connected with the royal apartments behind. Herehe sat daily to give audience to his court, to receive ambassadors,and to administer justice. At the foot of the alcove is a squareslab of marble, about 3 feet in height, on which, it is said,his ministers stood to receive petitions to the Emperor, and toconvey his commands thereon. On the right and left of the throne arechambers with perforated marble windows, through which the ladies ofthe zanana could view the proceedings. Bernier's lively description,though it properly belongs to the Diwan-i-am at Delhi, will enableus to picture the scene in the days of the Great Mogul.

"The monarch every day, about noon, sits upon his throne, with someof his sons at his right and left, while eunuchs standing about theroyal person flap away the flies with peacocks' tails, agitate the airwith large fans, or wait with undivided attention and profound humilityto perform the different services allotted to each. Immediately underthe throne is an enclosure, surrounded by silver rails, in which areassembled the whole body of _omrahs_ (nobles), the Rajas, and theambassadors, all standing, their eyes bent downwards and their handscrossed. At a greater distance from the throne are the _mansebdhars_,or inferior _omrahs_, also standing in the same posture of profoundreverence. The remainder of the spacious room, and, indeed, the wholecourtyard, is filled with persons of all ranks, high and low, richand poor; because it is in this extensive hall that the King givesaudience indiscriminately to all his subjects; hence it is called_Am Khas_, or audience chamber of high and low.

"During the hour and a half, or two hours, that this ceremonycontinues, a certain number of the royal horses pass before the throne,that the King may see whether they are well used and Usbec, of everykind, and each dog with a small red covering; lastly, every speciesof the birds of prey used in field sports for catching partridges,cranes, hares, and even, it is said, for hunting antelopes, on whichthey pounce with violence, beating their heads and blinding them withtheir wings and claws."

After this parade, the more serious business of the day was attendedto. The Emperor reviewed his cavalry with peculiar attention, for hewas personally acquainted with every trooper. Then all the petitionsheld up in the assembled crowd were read and disposed of before theaudience closed.

On festivals or other special occasions the pillars of the hall werehung with gold brocades, and flowered satin canopies fastened withred silken cords were raised over the whole apartment. The floor wascovered entirely with the most magnificent silk carpets. A gorgeoustent, larger than the hall, to which it was fastened, and supportedby poles overlaid with silver, was pitched outside. Every compartmentof the arcades round the courtyard was decorated by one of the greatnobles, at his own expense, with gold brocades and costly carpets,each one vying with the other to attract the attention of the Emperor,to whom, on such occasions, an offering of gold or jewels, more or lessvaluable according to the pay and rank of the giver, must be presented.

JAHANGIR'S CISTERN.--Just in front of the Diwan-i-am is a great stonecistern, cut out of a single block, with steps inside and out, knownas Jahangir's _Hauz_, a bowl or bath-tub. There is a long Persianinscription round the outer rim; the only part now decipherable showsthat it was made for Jahangir in 1019 A.H. (A.D. 1611). It is nearly 5feet in height and 8 feet in diameter at the top. Its original placeis said to have been one of the courts of the Jahangiri Mahal.

THE TOMB OF MR. COLVIN.--Close by Jahangiri's _Hauz_ is the grave ofMr. John Russell Colvin, the Lieutenant-Governor of the North-WestProvinces, who died in the Fort during the disturbances of 1857.

Agra and the Later Mogul Emperors

Agra played a very small part in the history of the weak-minded anddissolute successors of Aurangzib. Firokhshiyar, who reigned from 1713to 1719, resided occasionally there. After his death disputes betweenvarious claimants to the throne led to Agra Fort being besieged andcaptured by Husein Ali Khan, a partisan of one of them, who lootedthe treasury of all the valuables deposited there during threecenturies. "There were the effects of Nur Jahan Begum and MumtazMahal, amounting in value, according to various reports, to two orthree crores of rupees. There was in particular the sheet of pearlswhich Shah Jahan had caused to be made for the tomb of Mumtaz Mahal,of the value of several lakhs of rupees, which was spread over iton the anniversary and on Friday nights. There was the ewer of NurJahan and her cushion of woven gold and rich pearls, with a borderof valuable garnets and emeralds." (Elliott.)

In 1739 Nadir, Shah of Persia, sacked Delhi, carried off Shah Jahan'sfamous peacock throne, and laid Agra also under contribution. TheMahrattas next appeared on the scene. In 1764 the Jats of Bharatpur,under Suraj Mal, captured Agra, looted the Taj, and played havocwith the palaces in the Fort. They were joined by Walter Reinhardt,an adventurer, half French and half German, who sold his servicesfor any work of infamy, and had only recently assisted in the murderof the British Resident and other Europeans at Patna. He afterwardsentered the Mogul service, and was rewarded by a grant of a tract ofcountry near Meerut, which remained in the possession of his familyuntil recent times. He died at Agra in 1778, and was buried in theCatholic cemetery.

For the next thirty-nine years Agra was occupied by Mahrattas andby Mogul imperialists in turn. John Hessing, a Dutch officer in theemploy of the Mahrattas, was Governor of Agra in 1794, and died therein 1802. The next year it was captured by the British under General,afterwards Lord, Lake, and from that time until 1857 its historywas uneventful.

Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb

Agra is only concerned with the first seven years of Aurangzib's reign,for, after the death of Shah Jahan, the court was removed to Delhi,and Agra was left with only a provincial governor to maintain itsformer magnificence. The unhappy Dara, after his defeat by Aurangzib,made fruitless attempts to retrieve his fortunes, but was at lastbetrayed into the hands of his brother, who immediately put him todeath. Aurangzib lost no time in disposing of his other two brothers,and thus placed his succession to the throne beyond dispute.

The Princess Rushanara, as a reward for her treachery, was raisedto the position formerly enjoyed by her sister Jahanara. The Frenchphysician Bernier, who resided twelve years at the Mogul court in thetime of Aurangzib, has left many minute and graphic records of thetimes. Here is a picture of Rushanara when she accompanied Aurangzibon the march from Delhi to Kashmir.

"Stretch imagination to its utmost limits, and you can conceiveno exhibition more grand and imposing than when Rauchenara-Begum,mounted on a stupendous Pegu elephant and seated in a _mikdember_,blazing with gold and azure, is followed by five or six other elephantswith _mikdembers_ nearly as resplendent as her own, and filled withladies attached to her household. Close to the Princess are the chiefeunuchs, richly adorned and finely mounted, each with a wand of officein his hand; and surrounding her elephant a troop of female servants,_Tartars_ and _Kachmerys_, fantastically attired and riding handsomepad-horses. Besides these attendants are several eunuchs on horseback,accompanied by a multitude of _pagys_, or lackeys, on foot, withlarge canes, who advance a great way before the Princess, both tothe right and left, for the purpose of clearing the road and drivingbefore them every intruder. Immediately behind Rauchenara-Begum'sretinue appears a principal lady of the court, mounted and attendedin much the same manner as the Princess. This lady is followed by athird, she by a fourth, and so on, until fifteen or sixteen femalesof quality pass with a grandeur of appearance, equipage, and retinuemore or less proportionate to their rank, pay, and office. There issomething very impressive of state and royalty in the march of thesesixty or more elephants; in their solemn and, as it were, measuredsteps, in the splendour of the _mikdembers_, and the brilliant andinnumerable followers in attendance; and, if I had not regarded thisdisplay of magnificence with a sort of philosophical indifference, Ishould have been apt to be carried away by such flights of imaginationas inspire most of the Indian poets when they represent the elephantsas conveying so many goddesses concealed from the vulgar gaze."

Dramatic justice overtook the scheming Princess at last. In 1664Aurangzib fell dangerously ill, and, while he was unconscious,Rushanara, believing him to be dying, abstracted the signet ringfrom his finger and issued letters, as under the royal seal, to thevarious Viceroys and Governors, setting aside the succession of theEmperor's eldest son by a Rajput Princess in favour of another son,a boy of six, by a Muhammadan sultana. She hoped by this means to keepthe supreme power in her own hands during the long minority of the newEmperor. Aurangzib unexpectedly recovered, and became suspicious ofhis dangerous sister. The host of enemies she had created at courtwere not slow in taking advantage of the situation, and Rushanarasoon afterwards disappeared--removed, it is said, by poison.

Aurangzeb ruled with a firm hand, and in strict justice accordingto the law of Islam, but though a man of great intellectual powers,of marvellous energy and indomitable courage, he was wanting inimagination, sympathy, and foresight, the highest qualities of areally great ruler. He checked the dissolute conduct of the nobles,and set an example of industry and devotion to duty; but his narrow,bigoted disposition inclined him to distrust even his own ministers,so that, unlike his three predecessors, he was badly served bythe lieutenants in whose hands the administration of the provincesrested. He surrounded himself with religious bigots of the Sunnisect of Muhammadans, who aided him in bitter persecution of theHindus. Hardly anything of artistic or architectural interest wascreated under his patronage. Most of the great artists who attendedShah Jahan's court were dismissed as unorthodox or heretics, and manynoble monuments were mutilated by the Emperor's fanatical followerson the ground that they contravened the precept of the Koran whichforbids the representation of animate nature in art.

He died in 1707, eighty-nine years of age. The Mogul empire, surroundedby hordes of the enemies his bigotry and intolerance had created,was already tottering to its fall, and the star of the British rajwas rising. Seventeen years before his death he had granted to JobCharnock a piece of land at Sutanati, the site of the future capitalof our Indian empire.

Shah Jahan

Shah Jahan, on his father's death, though only fourth in right ofsuccession to the throne, speedily disposed of his brothers by meansvery commonly adopted in Oriental royal families, and was enthroned atAgra in 1648. Immediately afterwards he wreaked his vengeance on thePortuguese, who had taken part against him in his rebellion againstJahangir, by destroying their settlement at Hughli. The next year,while on an expedition to suppress disorder in the Deccan, he losthis favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal, the lady of the Taj. For a longtime the Emperor abandoned himself entirely to grief, and he remainedfaithful to her memory until his death.

The actual building of the Taj commenced in 1632. From this date until1658, when Aurangzib usurped the throne, was the most magnificentperiod of the Mogul dynasty. The whole empire enjoyed comparative peaceand prosperity. Shah Jahan's just and liberal government continued hisfather's and grandfather's policy of tolerance towards the Hindus, andhis administration, though conducted with great pomp and splendour,did not press hardly upon the people. It was one of the greatestepochs of Indian architecture; besides the Taj Mahal, the buildingserected during these years include four of the masterpieces of theMogul period--the Jami Masjid, or Cathedral Mosque, of Delhi; theMuti Masjid, or Pearl Mosque, of Agra; part of the Agra Palace, andthe great palace at Delhi, of which only a small portion now exists.

It is said that as Shah Jahan advanced towards old age he abandonedhimself more and more to a life of pleasure and self-indulgence,but his last years were darkened by the same kind of family intriguesthrough which he himself had gained the throne. In 1657 the seriousillness of the Emperor brought these intrigues to a head. His eldestson by Mumtaz Mahal, called Dara Shikoh, a gracious and generousPrince, but headstrong and intolerant of advice, was appointedRegent. On receiving this intelligence, his younger brothers, Shuja,Viceroy of Bengal, and Murad, Viceroy of Gujarat, declared theirindependence, and marched upon Agra. Aurangzib, the third son,a religious bigot, but the ablest and most virile of the brothers,hastened to join them, and being placed in chief command, attackedDara's army close to Agra and completely defeated him. Three daysafterwards he entered the city. Shah Jahan sent his chamberlain toorder him to leave the city at once and return to his post in theDeccan, but Aurangzib, affecting to believe that his father was dead,disregarded the order. He succeeded by bribes and promises in bringingover some of the principal nobles to his side, and being well informedby Rushanara, his younger sister, who was his equal in cunning andartifice, of all that went on in the palace, he baffled Shah Jahan'sattempts to lay hands on him. At last, under pretence of arrangingan amicable meeting with his son Mahmud, Aurangzib beguiled ShahJahan into withdrawing his troops from the Fort. Mahmud immediatelyforced his way in with a picked body of men and seized the person ofthe Emperor. The plan succeeded so well that no attempt at a rescuewas made.

The French traveller Tavernier, who has left a complete record ofthe time, writes of this event: "It is most surprising that not oneof the servants of the grand King offered to assist him; that all hissubjects abandoned him, and that they turned their eyes to the risingsun, recognizing no one as king but Aurangzib. Shah Jahan, thoughstill living, passed from their memories. If, perchance, there wereany who felt touched by his misfortunes, fear made them silent, andmade them basely abandon a king who had governed them like a father,and with a mildness which is not common with sovereigns. For althoughhe was severe enough to the nobles when they failed to perform theirduties, he arranged all things for the comfort of the people, by whomhe was much beloved, but who gave no signs of it at this crisis."

Shah Jahan remained confined in a set of apartments of the AgraPalace for seven years. He died in 1666, and was buried by the sideof Mumtaz Mahal in the Taj. His captivity was shared by his favouritedaughter, Jahanara, who since the death of her mother had ruled theimperial household and taken a prominent part in state affairs. Shehad actively supported the cause of Dara, and thus incurred theresentment of Aurangzib. On her father's death she retired to Delhi,and she lived there until 1681. Her simple grave, covered with grass,is in a quiet corner of the courtyard of Nizamudin's tomb, near Delhi,where the memory of her filial piety adds to the poetic charm of allthe surroundings.

The Monuments of Shah Jahan's Reign at Agra:

The Taj Mahal, The Jami Masjid and the followingbuildings in the Fort: The Muti Masjid; the Diwan-i-am ;the Diwan-i-khas ; the Khas Mahal.

Jahangir

The eldest surviving son of Akbar, Prince Salim, on his accession tothe throne in 1605, assumed the title of Nur-ud-din Jahangir (Lightof the Faith, Conqueror of the World).

He was passionate, cruel, and a drunkard, but not without abilityand force of character. As Prince Salim he had instigated theassassination of the Prime Minister, Abul Fazl, and probably hastenedhis own father's death by his violent conduct. There was, however,a reconciliation at the end, and Jahangir endeavoured to atone forhis behaviour by lavish expenditure on Akbar's tomb at Sikandra. Hehas also left many pious tributes to his father's memory in hisautobiography. Jahangir's favourite wife was the celebrated Nur Mahal,who for twenty years was almost the supreme power in the imperialcourt. Her beauty attracted his attention while he was still PrinceSalim, but Akbar, disapproving of her as a daughter-in-law, gave her inmarriage to Sher Afsan, "the lion killer," a nobleman of Burdwan. Afterhis accession, having treacherously procured the death of her husband,Jahangir had Nur Mahal removed to Agra and placed under the care ofhis mother. For many years she repulsed all Jahangir's overtures,but when at last she consented to be his queen she became his mostdevoted wife. She accompanied him on all his travels, and Jahangirconsulted her in all important affairs of state. Sir Thomas Roe, Jamesthe First's ambassador, describes Jahangir at Agra taking his wifefor an evening drive in a bullock cart, "the King himself being hercarter." He affectionately changed her name from Nur Mahal, "Light ofthe Palace," to Nur Jahan, "Light of the World." The imperial coinagebore her name and an inscription, "Gold has acquired a new value sinceit bore the name of Nur Jahan." She even succeeded to some extentin controlling Jahangir's drunken habits. She was a great patronessof the arts, and it is said that the Samman Burj, her apartments inthe Agra palace, was decorated after her own designs. Her charitywas boundless; she was the especial protectress of orphan girls, andprovided marriage portions for no less than 500 from her private purse.

Nur Mahal's father, Itmad-ud-daulah, became Lord High Treasurer,and afterwards Wazir, or Prime Minister. On his death his daughterbuilt for him the magnificent tomb at Agra known by his name.

During Jahangir's reign many Europeans, travellers, adventurers andothers, flocked to the Mogul court. They were allowed free accessto the palace, and Jahangir frequently admitted them to join in hismidnight carouses. He showed great favour to the Jesuit priests,and even allowed two of his nephews to be instructed in the Christianreligion.

The violent temper of Jahangir was inherited by his son, PrinceKhurram, afterwards Shah Jahan, and the peace of his reign wasfrequently disturbed by open rebellion on the part of the Prince. In1623 Shah Jahan actually sacked Agra, and his soldiers committedfearful atrocities on the inhabitants. He failed, however, to capturethe fort, which contained the imperial treasury, and Jahangir,no doubt remembering his own father's leniency towards himself,forgave his unruly son.

Jahangir died in 1627, and was buried at Shahdara, near Lahore,in a magnificent tomb prepared by Nur Mahal. She herself retired toLahore, and, though she lived till 1648, ceased to take any part instate affairs after his death. She was buried by her husband's sideat Shahdara.

Jahangir's connection with Agra:
Jahangir for a great part of his reign held his court at Lahore,or at Kabul. The chief monuments of his reign at, or near, Agraare Akbar's tomb at Sikandra (p. 97), and Itmad-ud-daulah's tomb(p. 85), already mentioned. Part of the Agra Palace, the JahangiriMahal (p. 63), is named after him, though it is most probable thatit was really built in Akbar's reign.

There are a few minor buildings of Jahangir's time in Agra, such asthe baths of Ali Verdi Khan in Chipitollah Street, the mosque ofMotamid Khan in the Kashmiri Bazar, and the tower known after thename of Boland Khan, the chief eunuch of Jahangir's palace. Theseare of purely archaeological interest.

Akbar

Akbar, "the Great," was born at Amarkot, on the edge of the deserts ofMarwar, about three years after the battle of Kanauj, when his fatherHumayun was a fugitive, driven from place to place by the adherentsof Shere Shah. At this time the treasury of the royal house was soreduced that, when Humayun indented on it for the customary presentsto his faithful followers, the only thing procurable was a single podof musk. With the cheerfulness which was the saving grace of Humayun,he broke up the pod, and distributed it, adding the pious wish, whichseemed like prophetic insight, that his son's fame might fill theworld like the fragrance of that perfume. Trained in the hard schoolof adversity, and inheriting the best qualities of his grandfather,Akbar was not long in restoring the faded fortunes of the Moguldynasty. Like Babar, he succeeded to the throne at a very earlyage, and found himself surrounded by difficulties which would haveoverwhelmed a weaker character. Humayun had, indeed, fought his wayback to Delhi and Agra, but he had by no means settled with all thenumerous disputants for the sovereignty of Hindustan, which SultanIslam's death had left in the field; and his departure from Kabulhad been the signal for revolt in that quarter. Akbar, accompaniedby Bairam Khan, the ablest of Humayun's generals, was in Sind whenhe received at the same time the news of his father's death and ofthe revolt of the Viceroy at Kabul He was then little more thanthirteen years old, but, like Babar under similar circumstances,he was prompt in decision and in action. Adopting Bairam's advice,which was contrary to that of all his other counsellors, he left Kabulout of account, and pushed on to Delhi against the forces of Himu, aHindu general, and the most powerful of his foes, who had assumed thetitle of Raja Bikramajit, with the hopes of restoring the old Hindudynasty. On the historic plains of Panipat Akbar completely defeatedHimu's army, and thus regained the empire which his grandfather hadwon on the same field thirty years before. This great battle was themost critical point in his career, and though Akbar had to undertakemany other hard campaigns before he was absolute master of the empire,his position from that time was never seriously endangered.

Until his eighteenth year Akbar remained under the tutelage of Bairam,an able general, but unscrupulous and cruel. The high-minded, generousdisposition of Akbar revolted against some of his guardian's methods,but he recognized that, for some years at least, Bairam's experiencewas necessary for him. In 1560, however, he took the administrationentirely into his own hands. Bairam, in disgust, took up arms againsthis young master, but was soon defeated and taken prisoner. With hisusual magnanimity, Akbar pardoned him, and sent him off to Mecca witha munificent present; but the revengeful knife of an Afghan put anend to the turbulent nobleman's life before he could leave India.

Akbar spent the rest of his long reign in elaborating theadministrative reforms which have made him famous as the greatestruler India has ever had. With the aid of able ministers, both Hinduand Muhammadan, he purified the administration of justice, keepingthe supreme control in his own hands; enjoined absolute tolerancein religious matters; abolished oppressive taxes, and reorganizedand improved the system of land revenue introduced by Shere Shah. Aminute account of Akbar's reign, of his policy, habits, and character,is given in the "Akbar-nama," the history written by his devotedfriend and Prime Minister, Abul Fazl. No detail of state affairswas too small for Akbar's personal attention. Ability and integritywere the only passports to his favour, while bigotry and injusticewere anathemas to him. Like Babar, he was fond of horticulture, andimported many kinds of fruit trees and flowers into India. Thoughhe could neither read nor write, he had a great library of Hindi,Persian, Arabic, Greek, and other books, and Abul Fazl relates thatevery book was read through to him from beginning to end.

The most remarkable of all this remarkable man's intellectualactivities were his attempts to bring about a reconciliation of allthe discordant religious elements of his empire. Badayuni, one ofhis contemporary historians, but, unlike him, a bigoted Musalman,comments thus on Akbar's religious views: "From his earliest childhoodto his manhood, and from his manhood to old age, his Majesty has passedthrough the most various phases, and through all sorts of religiouspractices and sectarian beliefs, and has collected everything whichpeople can find in books, with a talent of selection peculiar to himand a spirit of inquiry opposed to every (Islamite) principle. Thus afaith based on some elementary principles traced itself on the mirrorof his heart, and, as the result of all the influences which werebrought to bear on his Majesty, there grew gradually, as the outlineon a stone, the conviction on his heart that there were sensiblemen in all religions, and abstemious thinkers and men endowed withmiraculous powers among all nations. If some true knowledge were thuseverywhere to be found, why should truth be confined to one religion,or to a creed like Islam, which was comparatively new, and scarcely athousand years old; why should one sect assert what another denies,and why should one claim a preference without having superiorityconferred upon itself?"

Near to his palace at Fatehpur Sikri he built an Ibadat Khana, orHall of Worship, for the discussion of philosophy and religion. Therehe received representatives of all religious sects, Muhammadans,Brahmans, Jains, Buddhists, Parsis, Jews, and Christians, and listenedattentively to their arguments. He studied deeply religious books,and had the New Testament translated into Persian. He also invitedJesuit priests from Goa, and not only allowed them to build a churchat Agra, but even attended a marriage service and interpreted thewords of the sermon to the bride. Badayuni says that "his Majestyfirmly believed in the truth of the Christian religion, and wishingto spread the doctrines of Jesus, ordered Prince Murad (his son)to take a few lessons in Christianity by way of auspiciousness." TheJesuits, however, did not succeed in making Akbar a convert, for whenhis religious convictions were at last settled, he proclaimed as thestate religion a kind of eclectic pantheism called Din-i-ilahi, or"Divine Faith," with himself as the chief interpreter. Dispensingwith all forms of priesthood, he simply recognized One God, theMaker of the Universe, and himself as God's vicegerent on earth. Herejected the doctrine of the Resurrection, and accepted that of thetransmigration of souls. The Islamite prayers were abolished, andothers of a more general character were substituted for them. Theceremonial was largely borrowed from the Hindus.

The "Divine Faith" had no hold on the people, and its influenceceased with the death of its founder. It is even said that Akbar,on his death-bed, acknowledged the orthodox Muhammadan creed, but theevidence on this point is unreliable. Akbar's religious system had animportant political bearing, for the keynote of his whole policy wasthe endeavour to unite with a bond of common interest all the diversesocial, religious, and racial elements of his empire. He overlookednothing which might further the object he had in view. He chose hisministers and generals indiscriminately from all his subjects, withoutdistinction of race or religion. He allied himself in marriage withthe royal Hindu families of Rajputana. He sat daily on the judgmentseat to dispense justice to all who chose to appeal to him, and,like the famous Harun-al-Rashid, he would at times put on disguisesand wander unattended among the people, to keep himself informed oftheir real condition and to check the malpractices of his officials.

Though Akbar unavoidably had bitter enemies among the more bigoted ofhis Muhammadan subjects, his wise tolerance of all beliefs and thegenerosity of his policy for the most part disarmed hostility fromall sides. Certainly no ruler of India before or since succeeded sofar in carrying out his object. He is still one of the great popularheroes of Hindustan; his mighty deeds in war and in the chase, hiswise and witty sayings, the splendour of his court, his magnanimityand his justice, still live in song and in story.

Akbar died in the Fort at Agra on October 13, 1605, in the fifty-firstyear of his reign, aged 63. He was buried at Sikandra, in the mausoleumcommenced by himself, and finished by his son and successor, Jahangir.

Akbar's connection with Agra:

The modern city of Agra, as stated previously, was founded by Akbarin 1558, opposite to the old city on the left bank of the river. Hebuilt the Fort, on the site of an old Pathan castle, and part of thepalace within it. Agra was the seat of government during the greaterpart of his reign. He also built the great mosque and the magnificentpalaces and public buildings of Fatehpur Sikri, which are among themost famous of the antiquities of India.

Humayun

Humayun, who succeeded Babar, had many of his father's amiablequalities, but none of his genius as a leader of men. He utterlyfailed in the attempt to consolidate the great empire which Babar hadleft him, and in 1539, or nine and a half years after his accession,he was completely defeated at Kanauj by Shere Khan Sur, an Afghannobleman, who had submitted to Babar, but revolted against hisson. Humayun found himself a fugitive with only a handful of men,and was eventually driven not only out of Hindustan, but even from thekingdom of Kabul. He then took refuge with the Shah of Persia. ShereKhan Sur, under the title of Shere Shah, ruled at Agra until he died,five years afterwards. His son, Salim Shah, or Sultan Islam, succeededhim, and reigned between seven and eight years, but on his death theusual quarrels between his relatives and generals gave Humayun, whoin the mean time had got back Kabul with the aid of a Persian army,the opportunity to recover his position in Hindustan. This occurredin 1555, but Humayun's unfortunate reign terminated the same yearthrough a fatal fall from a staircase in his palace at Delhi.

Humayun left no memorial of himself at Agra, but he is to be rememberedfor two circumstances; the first, that he was the father of the greatAkbar, who succeeded him; and the second, that the plan of his tombat Delhi, built by Akbar, was the model on which the plan of the Tajwas based.

Interregnum: Shere Shah.

Shere Shah was a great builder, and a most capable ruler. In his shortreign of five years he initiated many of the great administrativereforms which Akbar afterwards perfected. Fergusson, in his"History of Indian Architecture," mentions that in his time therewas a fragment of a palace built by Shere Shah in the Fort at Agra,"which was as exquisite a piece of decorative art as any of its classin India." This palace has since been destroyed to make room for abarrack, but probably the two-storied pavilion known as the Salimgarhis the fragment to which Fergusson refers. The only other buildingof Shere Shah's time now remaining in Agra is the half-buried mosqueof Alawal Bilawal, or Shah Wilayat, in the _Nai-ki Mandi_ quarter(see p. 102).

Shere Shah's tomb at Sasseram, in Bihar, is one of the noblestmonuments of the Pathan style, or the style of the earliest Muhammadanarchitects in India.

Babar's connection with Agra.

Babar's connection with Agra began immediately after the battleof Panipat. He sent forward Humayun, who occupied the town withoutopposition. The story of the great diamond referred to above is hererecorded in the Memoirs. The Raja of Gwalior, slain at Panipat, hadleft his family and the heads of his clan at Agra. In gratitude toHumayun, who treated them magnanimously, and protected them fromplunder, they presented to him a _peskesh_, or token of homage,consisting of a quantity of jewels and precious stones. Among these wasone famous diamond which had been acquired by Sultan Alaeddin. "It isso valuable that a judge of diamonds valued it at about half the dailyexpense of the whole world. It is about eight _mikkals_" (or about280 carats). This is generally supposed to be the celebrated Koh-i-nur.

Babar determined to establish the seat of his government at Agra, butwas almost dissuaded by the desolate appearance of the country. "Italways appears to me," he says, "that one of the chief defects ofHindustan is the want of artificial watercourses. I had intended,wherever I might fix my residence, to construct water-wheels, toproduce an artificial stream, and to lay out an elegant and regularlyplanned pleasure ground. Shortly after coming to Agra I passed theJumna with this object in view, and examined the country to pitch upona fit spot for a garden. The whole was so ugly and detestable thatI repassed the river quite repulsed and disgusted. In consequence ofthe want of beauty and of the disagreeable aspect of the country, Igave up my intention of making a _charbagh_ (garden house); but as nobetter situation presented itself near Agra, I was finally compelled tomake the best of this same spot.... In every corner I planted suitablegardens, in every garden I sowed roses and narcissus regularly, and inbeds corresponding to each other. We were annoyed by three things inHindustan; one was its heat, another the strong winds, and the thirdits dust. Baths were the means of removing all three inconveniences."

As I have mentioned above, there are very few vestiges remaining ofBabar's city, of his fruit and flower gardens, palaces, baths, tanks,wells and watercourses. The Ram Bagh (p. 92) is one of the gardenslaid out either by himself or by one of his nobles, and the Zohra,or Zuhara Bagh, near it, contains the remains of a garden-house, whichis said to have belonged to one of Babar's daughters. Opposite to theTaj there are traces of the foundations of the city he built. Babarplanned, and his successors completed, the great road leading from Agrato Kabul through Lahore, parts of which still remain. Some of the oldmilestones can be seen on the road to Sikandra. Babar's account of thecommencement of it is very characteristic: "On Thursday, the 4th ofthe latter Rebia, I directed Chikmak Bey, by a writing under the royalhand and seal, [3] to measure the distance from Agra to Kabul; that atevery nine _kos_ he should raise a _minar_, or turret, twelve _gez_in height, on the top of which he was to construct a pavilion; thatevery ten _kos_ he should erect a _yam_, or post-house, which they calla _dak-choki,_ for six horses; that he should fix a certain allowanceas a provision for the post-house keepers, couriers, and grooms,and for feeding the horses; and orders were given that whenever apost-house for horses was built near a _khalseh_, or imperial demesne,they should be furnished from thence with the stated allowances;that if it were situated in a _pergunna_, the nobleman in chargeshould attend to the supply. The same day Chikmak Padshahi left Agra."

The promptness of Babar's administrative methods is a striking contrastto the circumlocution of present-day departmentalism. There stillexist remains of many splendid _sarais_, or halting-places, builtalong this road by different Mogul Emperors for their convenience,from the time of Babar down to Aurangzib. One of the finest is theNurmahal Sarai, near Jalandhar, built by Jahangir and named afterhis favourite wife. Edward Terry, who accompanied Sir Thomas Roe,James the First's ambassador at Jahangir's Court, describes "the longwalk of four hundred miles, shaded by great trees on both sides,"and adds, "this is looked upon by the travellers who have found thecomfort of that cool shade as one of the rarest and most beneficialworks in the whole world."

The Great Moguls.--I. Babar.

Though very few memorials of Babar's short but brilliant reign stillexist at Agra, the life of this remarkable man is so important apart of the Mogul dynasty that it must not be passed over by theintelligent tourist or student of Mogul art. It was Babar's sunnydisposition, and the love of nature characteristic of his race, thatbrought back into Indian art the note of joyousness which it had notknown since the days of Buddhism. Babar is one of the most strikingfigures in Eastern history. He was descended from Tamerlane, or Timur,on his father's side, and, on his mother's, from Chinghiz Khan. Inthe year 1494, at the age of twelve, he became king of Farghana, asmall kingdom of Central Asia, now known as Kokand. His sovereignty,however, was of a very precarious tenure, for he was surrounded onall sides by a horde of rapacious, intriguing relatives, scramblingfor the fragments of Timur's empire. With hardly a trustworthyally except a remarkably clever and courageous old grandmother, hestruggled for three years to retain his birthright. Then, acting on asudden inspiration, he made a dash for Samarkand, the ancient capitalof Timur, and won it. In his delightful memoirs Babar describes how,with boyish glee, he paced the ramparts himself, wandered from palaceto palace, and revelled in the fruit-gardens of what was then one ofthe finest cities of Asia. But in less than a hundred days, most ofhis shifty Mongol troops, disappointed in not finding as much bootyas they expected, deserted and joined a party of his enemies, whostraightway attacked Andijan, the capital of Farghana, where Babarhad left his mother and grandmother. Before he could come to theirrescue Andijan had fallen, and at the same time Samarkand, which hehad left, was occupied by another of his numerous rivals. This doublemisfortune caused still more of his followers to leave him, and hefound himself without a kingdom, except the little town of Khojend,and with only two hundred men. For almost the only time in his lifehe gave way utterly to despair. "I became a prey to melancholy andvexation; I was reduced to a sore distressed state and wept much."

Before long, however, Babar, rejoined by his mother and grandmother,whom the captors of Andijan had spared, taking advantage of anotherturn in the wheel of fortune, recovered his kingdom of Farghana,but lost the greater part of it again through another desertion ofhis "Mongol rascals." A second time, with only a handful of men, hesurprised and captured Samarkand (A.D. 1500). In the following yearhe rashly sallied out against Shaibani, the most formidable of hisadversaries, was defeated, and, after vainly trying to hold the cityagainst the victors, was forced to fly under cover of the night. Thistime he did not weep, but consoled himself next morning by riding aheadlong race with two of his companions. Reaching a village, wherethey found "nice fat flesh, bread of fine flour well baked, sweetmelons, and excellent grapes in great abundance," Babar declared thatin all his life he never enjoyed himself so much or felt so keenlythe pleasures of peace and plenty.

He now took refuge among the hills near Uratipa, finding amusementin observing the life of the villagers, and especially in conversingwith the mother of the headman, an old lady of a hundred and eleven,whose descendants, to the number of ninety-six, lived in the countryround about. One of her relatives had served in the army with whichTimur had invaded India, and she entertained the future Emperor ofHindustan by telling him stories of his ancestor's adventures.

After several fruitless raids with the few troopers who remainedfaithful to him, he allied himself with his two uncles, Mahmud andAhmad Khan, in an attack against Tambal, one of the powerful nobleswho had revolted against him and set up Jahangir, his brother, onthe throne of Farghana. At a critical moment his uncles left Babar tothe mercy of his enemy, and he was again forced to fly for his life,hotly pursued by Tambal's horsemen. He was overtaken by two of them,who, not daring to pit themselves against Babar's prodigious strengthand courage, tried to inveigle him into a trap. Babar gives a movingdescription of this great crisis in his life. Thoroughly exhausted,and seeing no prospect of escape, he resigned himself to die:--

"There was a stream in the garden, and there I made my ablutionsand recited a prayer of two bowings. Then surrendering myselfto meditation, I was about to ask God for His compassion, whensleep closed my eyes. I saw (in my dream) Khwaja Yakub, the son ofKhwaja Yahya, and grandson of his Eminence the Khwaja 'Obaid-Allah(a famous saint of Samarkand), with a numerous escort, mounted ondappled grey horses, come before me and say, '_Do not be anxious,the Khwaja has sent me to tell you that he will support you and seatyou on the throne of sovereignty; whenever a difficulty occurs to you,remember to beg his help, and he will at once respond to your appeal,and victory and triumph shall straightway lean to your side_.' Iawoke with easy heart, at the very moment when Yusuf the constableand his companions (Tambal's soldiers) were plotting some trick toseize and throttle me. Hearing them discussing it, I said to them,'All you say is very well, but I shall be curious to see which of youdares to approach me,' As I spoke the tramp of a number of horseswas heard outside the garden wall. Yusuf the constable exclaimed,'If we had taken you and brought you to Tambal, our affairs would haveprospered much thereby; as it is, he has sent a large troop to seizeyou; and the noise you hear is the tramp of horses on your track,'At this assertion my face fell, and I knew not what to devise.

"At this very moment the horsemen, who had not at first found the gateof the garden, made a breach in its crumbling wall, through which theyentered. I saw they were Kutluk Muhammad Barlas and Babai Pargari, twoof my most devoted followers, with ten or twenty other persons. Whenthey came near to my person they threw themselves off their horses,and, bending the knee at a respectful distance, fell at my feet,and overwhelmed me with marks of their affection.

"Amazed at this apparition, I felt that God had just restored me tolife. I called to them at once, 'Seize Yusuf the constable, and thewretched traitors who are with him, and bring them to me bound handand foot,' Then, turning to my rescuers, I said, 'Whence come you? Whotold you what was happening?' Kutluk Muhammad Barlas answered, 'AfterI found myself separated from you in the sudden flight from Akhsi,I reached Andijan at the very moment when the Khans themselves weremaking their entry. There I saw, in a dream, Khwaja 'Obaid-Allah,who said, "_Padishah Babar is at this instant in a village calledKarman; fly thither and bring him back with you, for the throne ishis of right_." Rejoicing at this dream, I related it to the big Khanand little Khan.... Three days have we been marching, and thanks beto God for bringing about this meeting.'"

After this exciting adventure Babar rejoined his time-serving uncles,but was forced into exile again in 1503, when, at the battle of Akshi,the Khans were completely defeated by Shaibani. Then he resolvedto depart out of Farghana and to give up the attempt to recoverhis kingdom. Characteristically, when foiled in one enterprise heentered upon another yet more ambitious. Joined by his two brothers,Jahangir and Nasir, and by a motley array of various wandering tribes,he swooped down upon Kabul and captured it.

The description of the new kingdom thus easily won, which fills manypages of the Memoirs, reveals another side of Babar's character--hisintense love of nature. He gives minute accounts of the climate,physical characteristics, the fruits, flowers, birds, and beasts,as well as of the human inhabitants. In the intervals between hisbattles, or between his rollicking drinking parties, which for someyears of his life degenerated into drunken orgies, we often find Babarlost in admiration of some beautiful landscape, or collecting flowersand planting fruit trees. Wherever he came, Babar's first care wasto dig wells and plant fruit and flower gardens. India owes much tothe Great Moguls' love of horticulture.

When Babar had drilled his unruly Afghan subjects into somethinglike order, he made, in 1506, one more unsuccessful attempt to crushShaibani. However, in 1510, when that doughty warrior was defeated andslain by Ismail, Shah of Persia, Samarkand fell once more into Babar'shands, as a vassal of the Shah. Eight months afterwards he was drivenout again. From that time Babar gave up all hopes of re-establishingthe empire of his ancestor Timur, and turned his face towards India. In1519 he gathered an army for his first expedition, which was, however,more of a reconnaissance than a conquest. Four more attempts he made,until at last, in 1526, with only 10,000 men, he defeated the hostsof Ibrahim Lodi, the last of the Afghan kings of Delhi, who, with15,000 of his troops, were left dead on the field of Panipat.

Thus, after many struggles, Babar became "master and conqueror of themighty empire of Hindustan," but he had to fight two more great battlesbefore his sovereignty was undisputed--one in 1527 near FatehpurSikri, with the great chief of the Rajputs, Raja Sanga of Chitore,and another in 1529 near Buxar, with the Afghans who had settled inBengal. The next year Babar died in his garden palace at Agra Thenobility of his character was conspicuous in his death as it wasin his life. He was devotedly attached to his eldest son, Humayun,who was seized with malarial fever while staying at his countryestate at Sambhal. Babar had him removed by boat to Agra, but hisphysicians declared that the case was hopeless. Babar's own health hadsuffered much during his life in India, and he was terribly agitatedby the news. When some one suggested that in such circumstances theAlmighty sometimes deigned to accept the thing most valued by onefriend in exchange for the life of another, Babar exclaimed thatof all things his life was dearest to Humayun, as Humayun's was tohim. He would sacrifice his own life to save his son. His courtiersentreated him to give up instead the great diamond taken at Agra,said to be the most valuable on earth. Babar declared that no stonecould compare in value with his own life, and after solemnly walkinground Humayun's couch, as in a religious sacrifice, he retired todevote himself to prayer. Soon afterwards he was heard to exclaim, "Ihave borne it away! I have borne it away!" Humayun began to recover,and, as he improved, Babar gradually sank. Commending his son tothe protection of his friends, and imploring Humayun to be kind andforgiving to his brothers, the first of the "Great Moguls" of Indiapassed away. He was buried at Kabul, in one of his beloved gardens,which, according to Tartar custom, he had chosen for his tomb, in"the sweetest spot of the neighbourhood."

AGRA - Historical Introduction

Agra has two histories: one of the ancient city on the east, or left,bank of the river Jumna, going back so far as to be lost in the legendsof Krishna and of the heroes of the Mahabharata; the other of themodern city, founded by Akbar in A.D. 1558, on the right bank of theriver, and among Muhammadans still retaining its name of Akbarabad,which is intimately associated with the romance of the Great Moguls,and known throughout the world as the city of the Taj.

Of ancient Agra little now remains except a few traces of thefoundations. It was a place of importance under various Hindudynasties previous to the Muhammadan invasions of India, but itschequered fortunes down to the beginning of the sixteenth centuryare the usual tale of siege and capture by Hindu or Mussulman, andpossess little historical interest.

In A.D. 1505 Sultan Sikandar Lodi, the last but one of theAfghan dynasty at Delhi, rebuilt Agra and made it the seat ofgovernment. Sikandra, the burial-place of Akbar, is named after him,and there he built a garden-house which subsequently became the tombof Mariam Zamani, one of Akbar's wives. The son of Sultan Sikandar,Ibrahim Lodi, was defeated and slain by Babar at Panipat, near Delhi,in 1526, and from that time Agra became one of the principal citiesof the Mogul Empire which Babar founded.